Spices and Flavors; Spice Types, Natural and Artificial Flavors

Spices and flavorings are ingredients used to enhance or enrich the flavor of food, or to mask an unpleasant taste. Flavor can be defined as the overall sensory impression produced by the characteristics of food perceived through the tongue and nose after it enters the mouth.

When defining food, we noted that flavor is a human need (see Food and Nutrition: Definitions, History and Nutrients). We therefore also expect food to be flavorful, which makes its taste and aroma important.

The taste and aroma of a food result from the combined contribution of many molecules with different sensory properties. These include fatty acids, alcohols, esters, aldehydes, cyclic compounds, ketones, terpene alcohols, lactones, phenols and sulfur-containing compounds.

Today we know that the unique flavor of coffee is due to the 528 different molecules it contains. Likewise, the flavor of the tea is made up of 300 different molecules it contains. Taste and flavor molecules can be found in foods in 6 different ways;

1. As a natural ingredient; Molecules that give taste and flavor to a food can be found naturally in that food. For example, the distinctive flavor of the orange is due to the molecules it naturally contains.

2. May occur during processing; Especially the heat treatment applied to the food can create new aromatic molecules in the food. The best-known example of this situation is some compounds formed as a result of the Maillard reaction. Smoking can also be mentioned as another process that imparts a flavor component.

3. May occur as a result of microbial activity; Microorganisms in food release new and different molecules while using food as their food. While this is desirable in fermented foods such as cheese or yogurt, it can also be undesirable resulting in spoilage.

4. May be formed as a result of chemical reactions; Different triggers such as heat, light, oxygen or humidity can cause some chemical reactions in the food, and different aromatic molecules can be formed as a result of these reactions. The rancidity that develops in fats and oils over time is mostly due to free fatty acids released as a result of oxidation.

5. They may transfer to food from the surroundings. Volatile aroma molecules can migrate into other foods stored in the same environment, causing odor absorption. A familiar example is uncovered butter absorbing odors from other foods in the refrigerator.

6. They can be added to food as additives; Aromatic molecules can be found in foods by adding flavors and spices to the food as additives.

Flavors and spices are important components used to meet the flavor needs of foods. In fact, some dishes gain a distinctive character with the spice added to them and that dish cannot be imagined without that spice.

It is known that human beings can perceive over 10 thousand different flavors. In addition to the basic tastes such as sweetness, saltiness, bitterness and sourness, there are over 20 identifiable flavors.

Spices

Spices are natural ingredients. They are generally obtained by drying and grinding aromatic herbs. Naturally, the amount of use is limited by the degree and sharpness of the flavor it gives, rather than its effect on health.

According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), a spice is an aromatic plant material used whole, broken or ground, excluding substances traditionally regarded as foods, such as onion, garlic and celery. Its main function in food is seasoning rather than providing nutrition.

Allspice, anise, basil, bay leaf, cumin seeds, cardamom, celery seeds, parsley, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, cumin seeds, dill seeds, fennel seeds, fenugreek, ginger, horseradish, mace, marjoram, mustard flour, nutmeg, thyme, paprika, parsley, pepper, black pepper, white pepper, red pepper, saffron, sage, savory, star anise, tarragon, thyme, turmeric are the main spices used.

As it is known, some spices such as red pepper, turmeric and saffron are spices that are used for coloring as well as flavoring. The purpose for which these spices are added should be stated on the food label.

Spices generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and their source plants are listed below;

Spices	Plant
Garlic	Allium sativum L.
Chives	Allium schoenoprasum L.
Galanga	Alpinia officinarum Hance.
Grains of paradise	Amomum melegueta Rosc.
Dill	Anethum graveolens L.
Angelica	Angelica archangelica L. or other spp. of Angelica.
Camomile, English or Roman	Anthemis nobilis L.
Chervil	Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm.
Celery seed	Apium graveolens L.
Horseradish	Armoracia lapathifolia Gilib.
Tarragon	Artemisia dracunculus L.
Mustard, white or yellow	Brassica hirta Moench.
Mustard, brown	Brassica juncea (L.) Coss.
Mustard, black or brown	Brassica nigra (L.) Koch.
Calendula	Calendula officinalis L.
Marigold, pot	Calendula officinalis L.
Pot marigold	Calendula officinalis L.
Capers	Capparis spinosa L.
Paprika	Capsicum annuum L.
Capsicum	Capsicum frutescens L. or Capsicum annuum L.
Cayenne pepper	Capsicum frutescens L. or Capsicum annuum L.
Pepper, cayenne	Capsicum frutescens L. or Capsicum annuum L.
Caraway	Carum carvi L.
Cassia, Padang or Batavia	Cinnamomum burmanni Blume.
Cassia, Chinese	Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cinnamon, Chinese	Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cassia, Saigon	Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Cinnamon, Saigon	Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Cinnamon, Ceylon	Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees.
Coriander	Coriandrum sativum L.
Saffron	Crocus sativus L.
Cumin	Cuminum cyminum L.
Turmeric	Curcuma longa L.
Zedoary	Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.
Angelica root	Angelica archangelica L. or other spp. of Angelica.
Angelica seed	Angelica archangelica L. or other spp. of Angelica.
Pepper, red	Capsicum frutescens L. or Capsicum annuum L.
Cardamom	Elettaria cardamomum Maton.
Cloves	Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.
Fennel, common	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Fennel, sweet	Foeniculum vulgare Mill. var. duice (DC.) Alex.
Angostura (cusparia bark)	Galipea officinalis Hancock.
Glycyrrhiza	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and other spp. of Glycyrrhiza.
Licorice	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and other spp. of Glycyrrhiza.
Ambrette seed	Hibiscus abelmoschus L.
Hyssop	Hyssopus officinalis L.
Anise, star	Illicium verum Hook. f.
Star anise	Illicium verum Hook. f.
Bay	Laurus nobilis L.
Lavender	Lavandula officinalis Chaix.
Oregano	Lippia spp.
Marjoram, sweet	Majorana hortensis Moench.
Marjoram, pot	Majorana onites (L.) Benth.
Pot marjoram	Majorana onites (L.) Benth.
Horehound	Marrubium vulgare L.
Camomile (chamomile), German or Hungarian	Matricaria chamomilla L.
Balm (lemon balm)	Melissa officinalis L.
Peppermint	Mentha piperita L.
Spearmint	Mentha spicata L.
Mace	Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Nutmeg	Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Caraway, black (black cumin)	Nigella sativa L.
Cumin, black (black caraway)	Nigella sativa L.
Basil, sweet	Ocimum basilicum L.
Basil, bush	Ocimum minimum L.
Poppy seed	Papaver somniferum L.
Geranium	Pelargonium spp.
Parsley	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Mansf.
Allspice	Pimenta officinalis Lindl.
Anise	Pimpinella anisum L.
Pepper, black	Piper nigrum L.
Pepper, white	Piper nigrum L.
Rosemary	Rosmarinus officinalis L.
Rue	Ruta graveolens L.
Sage	Salvia officinalis L.
Clary (clary sage)	Salvia sclarea L.
Sage, Greek	Salvia triloba L.
Elder flowers	Sambucus canadensis L.
Savory, summer	Satureia hortensis L. (Satureja).
Savory, winter	Satureia montana L. (Satureja).
Sesame	Sesamum indicum L.
Thyme, wild or creeping	Thymus serpyllum L.
Thyme	Thymus vulgaris L.
Linden flowers	Tilia spp.
Clover	Trifolium spp.
Fenugreek	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Vanilla	Vanilla planifolia Andr., Vanilla tahitensis J. W. Moore.
Ginger	Zingiber officinale Rosc.

Flavors

Flavorings can be obtained from natural substances or produced synthetically in a laboratory. In this context, they are classified into two groups: natural and artificial.

Natural flavorings are usually extracted from plants or foods. They include essential oils, oleoresins [1], essences or extracts, protein hydrolysates and distillates obtained from spices, fruits or fruit juices, vegetables or vegetable juices, edible yeast, herbs, bark, buds, roots, leaves or similar plant materials, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs and dairy products through fermentation, distillation, heating or enzymatic action. Their main function in food is flavoring rather than nutrition.

In this context, the natural flavor can be obtained by different methods from almost all the spices listed above.

Essential oils, oleoresins and natural extracts that are generally considered safe to use as natural flavors and the plants from which they are obtained are as follows;

Natural Flavors	Plant
Dog grass (quackgrass, triticum)	Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.
Onion	Allium cepa L.
Garlic	Allium sativum L.
Galanga (galangal)	Alpinia officinarum Hance.
Dill	Anethum graveolens L.
Angelica root	Angelica archangelica L.
Rosewood	Aniba rosaeodora Ducke.
Camomile (chamomile) flowers, Roman or English	Anthemis nobilis L.
Chervil	Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm.
Celery seed	Apium graveolens L.
Estragole (esdragol, esdragon, tarragon)	Artemisia dracunculus L.
Tarragon	Artemisia dracunculus L.
Mustard	Brassica spp.
Cananga	Cananga odorata Hook. f. and Thoms.
Ylang-ylang	Cananga odorata Hook. f. and Thoms.
Paprika	Capsicum annuum L.
Capsicum	Capsicum frutescens L. and Capsicum annuum L.
Caraway	Carum carvi L.
Hickory bark	Carya spp.
Carob bean	Ceratonia siliqua L.
Locust bean	Ceratonia siliqua L.
Pipsissewa leaves	Chimaphila umbellata Nutt.
Chicory	Cichorium intybus L.
Cassia bark, Padang or Batavia	Cinnamomum burmanni Blume.
Cassia bark, Chinese	Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cinnamon bark, Chinese	Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cinnamon leaf, Chinese	Cinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cassia bark, Saigon	Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Cinnamon bark, Saigon	Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Cinnamon leaf, Saigon	Cinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Cinnamon bark, Ceylon	Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees.
Cinnamon leaf, Ceylon	Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees.
Lime	Citrus aurantifolia Swingle.
Curacao orange peel (orange, bitter peel)	Citrus aurantium L.
Neroli, bigarade	Citrus aurantium L.
Orange, bitter, flowers	Citrus aurantium L.
Petitgrain	Citrus aurantium L.
Bergamot (bergamot orange)	Citrus aurantium L. subsp. bergamia Wright et Arn.
Lemon	Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Lemon peel	Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Petitgrain lemon	Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Grapefruit	Citrus paradisi Macf.
Naringin	Citrus paradisi Macf.
Mandarin	Citrus reticulata Blanco.
Petitgrain mandarin or tangerine	Citrus reticulata Blanco.
Tangerine	Citrus reticulata Blanco.
Orange leaf	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck.
Citrus peels	Citrus spp.
Coffee	Coffea spp.
Cola nut	Cola acuminata Schott and Endl., and other spp. of Cola.
Coriander	Coriandrum sativum L.
Saffron	Crocus sativus L.
Cascarilla bark	Croton eluteria Benn.
Cumin (cummin)	Cuminum cyminum L.
Turmeric	Curcuma longa L.
Zedoary bark	Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.
Lemon grass	Cymbopogon citratus DC. and Cymbopogon flexuosus Stapf.
Geranium, East Indian	Cymbopogon martini Stapf.
Palmarosa	Cymbopogon martini Stapf.
Citronella	Cymbopogon nardus Rendle.
Carrot	Daucus carota L.
Angelica seed	Angelica archangelica L.
Angelica stem	Angelica archangelica L.
Clove leaf	Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.
Clove stem	Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.
Dandelion root	Taraxacum officinale Weber and T. laevigatum DC.
Estragon (tarragon)	Artemisia dracunculus L.
Glycyrrhizin, ammoniated	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and other spp. of Glycyrrhiza.
Menthyl acetate	Mentha spp.
Orange, bitter, peel	Citrus aurantium L.
Orange, sweet	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck.
Orange, sweet, flowers	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck.
Orange, sweet, peel	Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck.
Rose (otto of roses, attar of roses)	Rosa alba L., Rosa centifolia L., Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa gallica L. and vars. of these spp.
Rose buds	Rosa alba L., Rosa centifolia L., Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa gallica L. and vars. of these spp.
Rose flowers	Rosa alba L., Rosa centifolia L., Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa gallica L. and vars. of these spp.
Rose fruit (hips)	Rosa alba L., Rosa centifolia L., Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa gallica L. and vars. of these spp.
Thyme, white	Thymus vulgaris L. and Thymus zygis var. gracilis Boiss.
Violet leaves	Viola odorata L.
Violet leaves absolute	Viola odorata L.
Cardamom seed (cardamon)	Elettaria cardamomum Maton.
Coca (decocainized)	Erythroxylum coca Lam. and other spp. of Erythroxylum.
Clove bud	Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.
Asafoetida	Ferula assa-foetida L. and related spp. of Ferula.
Fennel, sweet	Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Angostura (cusparia bark)	Galipea officinalis Hancock.
Glycyrrhiza	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and other spp. of Glycyrrhiza.
Licorice	Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and other spp. of Glycyrrhiza.
Immortelle	Helichrysum augustifolium DC.
Ambrette (seed)	Hibiscus moschatus Moench.
Malt (extract)	Hordeum vulgare L., or other grains.
Hops	Humulus lupulus L.
Lupulin	Humulus lupulus L.
Lavandin	Hybrids between Lavandula officinalis Chaix and Lavandula latifolin Vill.
Hyssop	Hyssopus officinalis L.
Yerba Mate	Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.
Jasmine	Jasminum officinale L. and other spp. of Jasminum.
Juniper (berries)	Juniperus communis L.
Bay leaves	Laurus nobilis L.
Laurel berries	Laurus nobilis L.
Laurel leaves	Laurus spp.
Lavender, spike	Lavandula latifolia Vill.
Lavender	Lavandula officinalis Chaix.
Marjoram, sweet	Majorana hortensis Moench.
Horehound (hoarhound)	Marrubium vulgare L.
Camomile (chamomile) flowers, Hungarian	Matricaria chamomilla L.
Alfalfa	Medicago sativa L.
Balm (lemon balm)	Melissa officinalis L.
Peppermint	Mentha piperita L.
Spearmint	Mentha spicata L.
Menthol	Mentha spp.
Horsemint	Monarda punctata L.
Mace	Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Nutmeg	Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Balsam of Peru	Myroxylon pereirae Klotzsch.
Tannic acid	Nutgalls of Quercus infectoria Oliver and related spp. of Quercus. Also in many other plants.
Basil	Ocimum basilicum L.
Origanum	Origanum spp.
Geranium, rose	Pelargonium graveolens L’Her.
Geranium	Pelargonium spp.
Parsley	Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Mansf.
Allspice	Pimenta officinalis Lindl.
Pimenta	Pimenta officinalis Lindl.
Bay (myrcia oil)	Pimenta racemosa (Mill.) J. W. Moore.
Anise	Pimpinella anisum L.
Pepper, black	Piper nigrum L.
Pepper, white	Piper nigrum L.
Tuberose	Polianthes tuberosa L.
Pimenta leaf	Pimenta officinalis Lindl.
Almond, bitter (free from prussic acid)	Prunus amygdalus Batsch, Prunus armeniaca L. or Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.
Cherry, wild, bark	Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Sloe berries (blackthorn berries)	Prunus spinosa L.
Guava	Psidium spp.
Pomegranate	Punica granatum L.
Rose absolute	Rosa alba L., Rosa centifolia L., Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa gallica L. and vars. of these spp.
Rose leaves	Rosa spp.
Rosemary	Rosmarinus officinalis L.
Rue	Ruta graveolens L.
Molasses (extract)	Saccharum officinarum L.
Sage, Spanish	Salvia lavandulaefolia Vahl.
Sage	Salvia officinalis L.
Clary (clary sage)	Salvia sclarea L.
Sage, Greek	Salvia triloba L.
Elder flowers	Sambucus canadensis L. and S. nigra L.
Savory, summer	Satureia hortensis L.
Savory, winter	Satureia montana L.
Schinus molle	Schinus molle L.
Tamarind	Tamarindus indica L.
Dandelion	Taraxacum officinale Weber and T. laevigatum DC.
Tea	Thea sinensis L.
Cacao	Theobroma cacao L.
Thyme, wild or creeping	Thymus serpyllum L.
Thyme	Thymus vulgaris L. and Thymus zygis var. gracilis Boiss.
Linden flowers	Tilia spp.
Clover	Trifolium spp.
Fenugreek	Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Vanilla	Vanilla planifolia Andr. or Vanilla tahitensis J. W. Moore.
Violet flowers	Viola odorata L.
Prickly ash bark	Xanthoxylum (or Zanthoxylum) Americanum Mill. or Xanthoxylum clava-herculis L.
Corn silk	Zea mays L.
Ginger	Zingiber officinale Rosc.

Artificial and nature-identical flavorings are substances produced chemically in a laboratory. Artificial flavors that are considered safe to use are as follows;

Artificial Flavors
Vanillin.
Piperonal (3,4-methylenedioxy-benzaldehyde, heliotropin).
N-Butyric acid (butanoic acid).
Methyl anthranilate (methyl-2-aminobenzoate).
l-Malic acid.
Linalyl acetate (bergamol).
Linalool (linalol, 3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol).
Limonene (d-, l- and dl-).
Glycerol (glyceryl) tributyrate (tributyrin, butyrin).
Geranyl acetate (geraniol acetate).
Geraniol (3,7-dimethyl-2,6 and 3,6-octadien-1-ol).
Eugenol.
Ethyl vanillin.
Diacetyl (2,3-butanedione). Ethyl acetate. Ethyl butyrate.
Decanal (N-decylaldehyde, capraldehyde).
d– or l-Carvone (carvol).
Citral (2,6-dimethyloctadien-2,6-al-8, geranial, neral).
Cinnamaldehyde (cinnamic aldehyde).
Benzaldehyde (benzoic aldehyde).
Anethole (parapropenyl anisole).
3-Methyl-3-phenyl glycidic acid ethyl ester
Acetaldehyde (ethanal).
Acetoin (acetyl methylcarbinol).

[1] Oleoresins are substances composed of oil and resin.

References

Saldamlı, İ. (Ed.). (2021). Gıda Kimyası. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayınları.

Bilişli, A. (2012). Gıda Kimyası. Sidas Medya.

Altuğ, T. (Ed.). (2017). Gıda Katkı Maddeleri. Sidas Medya.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2026). 21 CFR § 101.22: Foods; labeling of spices, flavorings, colorings and chemical preservatives.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2026). 21 CFR § 182.10: Spices and other natural seasonings and flavorings.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2026). 21 CFR § 182.20: Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates).

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2026). 21 CFR § 182.60: Synthetic flavoring substances and adjuvants.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2026). 21 CFR § 172.515: Synthetic flavoring substances and adjuvants.

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